Chapter+7

=**__Chapter 7__** =

Two Distinct Approaches
1. Behaviorist (sometimes referred to as stimulus-response theory)- Exemplified by the writings of Skinner and Keller Simple Learning Situations, for example: Classical and operant conditioning, rote verbal learning, and discrimination learning 2. Cognitive- Exemplified by writings of Bruner and Ausubel Complex Learning Areas, for example: Information processing, concept formation, and problem-solving

The Behaviorist
"Learning as the development of a 'bond' or association between a stimulus and a behavior or response."


 * Pavlov's classical conditioning
 * Skinner's behavior analysis and operant conditioning

__Complex Behavior Explanation Concepts__
 * 1) Stimulus Generalization- occurs when similar stimuli evoke the same response.
 * 2) Mediational Process- may be conceived of as an internal series of associations or stimulus-response bonds that occur between the presentation of an environmental factor and an observable response.

The Cognitivists
It is the study of how people perceive, remember, think, speak, and solve problems.

__//Examples//__

 * Freudian psychology
 * Bruner and cognitive psychology

__New Knowledge Acquisition and Retention__
 * 1) Discovery Learning- students play an active role in organizing the material to be learned.
 * 2) Reception Learning- the material to be learned has already been organized by the instructor.
 * 3) Computer Based Processing- focuses on input and output.

//__Examples__//
__Howard Gardner's 7 Different Components__
 * Jean Piaget- Genetic Epistemology and Developmental psychology
 * Carl Roger- focuses on the development of a "fully functioning person."
 * Abraham Maslow- discusses a hierarchy of needs, and that when individuals' basic needs are met, they are motivated primarily by "self-actualization."
 * Guilford- suggests that instructional material should be focused quite specifically on the development of these separate intellectual abilities.
 * Howard Gardner- presents a theory of multiple intelligences comprised of 7 different components.
 * 1) Linguistic intelligence- sensitivity to the meaning and order of words, for example- poets and translators
 * 2) Logical-mathematical intelligence- the ability to handle chains of reasoning and to recognize patterns and orders, for example- mathematicians and scientists
 * 3) Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence- skilled bodily performance, including a well-honed sense of timing and the ability to handle objects adroitly, for example- athletes, dancers and surgeons.
 * 4) Spacial intelligence- the ability to perceive the world accurately and re-create or transform aspects of that world, for example- painters, sculptures, and architects
 * 5) Interpersonal intelligence- the ability to understand and relationships, for example- politicians, religious leaders, and teachers
 * 6) Intrapersonal intelligence- a heightened awareness of oneself and others, particular one's emotional life, including fears, desires and competencies, for example- social workers and psychologists
 * 7) Musical intelligence- sensitivity to pitch and rhythm and to a lesser extent timbre.

Curriculum Planning

 * 1) The sequence of instructional material should be undertaken with an understanding of how children at various stages of development organize information.
 * 2) The curriculum designer should consider the style of instructional material so that it will be most effective for children who at different ages may process information in different ways.

__Piaget's Stage Theory- 4 stages __
 * Sensorimotor Stage, from birth to age 2. Children experience the world through movement and senses (use five senses to explore the world). During the sensorimotor stage children are extremely egocentric, meaning they cannot perceive the world from others' viewpoints. The sensorimotor stage is divided into six substages: "(1) simple reflexes; (2) first habits and primary circular reactions; (3) secondary circular reactions; (4) coordination of secondary circular reactions; (5) tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and curiosity; and (6) internalization of schemes."
 * Preoperational Stage, from ages 2 to 7 (magical thinking predominates. Acquisition of motor skills). Egocentrism begins strongly and then weakens. Children cannot conserve or use logical thinking.
 * Concrete Operational Thought, from ages 7 to 12 (children begin to think logically but are very concrete in their thinking). Children can now conserve and think logically but only with practical aids. They are no longer egocentric.
 * Formal Operational Thought, from age 12 onwards (development of abstract reasoning). Children develop abstract thought and can easily conserve and think logically in their mind.

__Bruner's Three Modes of Cognitive Development__
 * Enactive- Early, actions are represented through motor patterns.
 * Iconic- Middle, representing the environment through images.
 * Symbolic- Late, conserve and think logically but only with practical aids.

__Gagne's Learning Hierarchy__
 * Type1 Signal Learning- A particular stimulus always elicits a particular response
 * Type 2 Stimulus-Response- Rewarding the behavior and increasing the likelihood of that particular response to that particular stimulus
 * Type 3 Chaining- Stimulus-response units are connected into sequences
 * Type 4 Verbal Association- a subdivision of chaining
 * Type 5 Multiple Discrimination- Stimulus-response chains may work in combination
 * Type 6 Concept Learning- Set of multiple discrimination come together under a verbal label
 * Type 7 Principle Learning- This is a chain of concepts such as the rules that governs the construction of various musical modes on different starting pitches
 * Type 8 Problem Solving- The process of combining principles into novel, higher-order principles

Teachers must identify and supply the right type of "fuel" for a particular student's "engine."
__ Primary and Secondary Drives __ Primary and secondary drives are intrinsic motivators (hunger, survival instincts). Intrinsic motivators function without observable rewards. Intrinsic motivators include both primary biological drives and secondary psychological drives. Extrinsic motivators pair observable rewards with the task to be accomplished. Some behaviors require little motivation (sleeping/eating), others require more (practicing scales).

__//Primary Drive Examples//__: Pain, hunger, and thirst. These drives are instrumental in the acquisition of basic survival skills.

__//Secondary, or psychological drive, Examples://__ Fear, love, frustration, curiosity, the need for stimulation, the need for achievement, and "self-actualization." Tend to be of more interest to educators, since teachers are not allowed to starve or inflict pain on students in order to facilitate learning. Secondary drives are acquired, not inborn.

**Competence and Achievement Motivation**

__"Competence Motivation":__ White (1959) proposes a psychological drive that he labels "competence." Competence motivation is an intrinsic need to master one's environment: for example, performing a technically difficult passage of music.

//Application// for music teachers: provide students with the opportunity to make decisions regarding their own achievement. Produce a confident, skilled learner, one characterized by self-assurance and a willingness to take risks.

__McClelland's theory of "Achievement Motivation"__ Adds a standard of evaluation (doing a //good// job) and an emotional component (a sense of satisfaction).

A student's need to achieve can be appreciably affected by formal and informal environmental factors:
 * The learner's ego-involvement
 * pride in the learning task
 * family influences
 * cultural influences

__Nicholl's "task-involvement" theory:__ Contrasts two psychological states associated with mastering a task:
 * 1) Ego-involved learners - focus on themselves rather than the task - they are more consciously self-evaluative - and competence is indicated by performnace that is superior to that of others. Ego-involved individuals have to 'have to' beat someone else.
 * 2) Task-involved learners - focus on the task rather than themselves and learning or performing is an end itself...thus task-involved students feel competent if they achieve their personal best, if they make real gains in mastery.

//Application// for music teachers: //**The sense of competition that is often developed in musical ensembles is likely to be successful in motivating some performers to high levels, but may generate problems for other members of the group.**//

__Maehr's Theory: Motivation can be understood in terms of "personal investment"__ Maehr's perspective is designed to take a broader view of motivation by addressing the social motives other than the need for achievement. The meaning of a situation to a person is the primary determinant of personal investment. This meaning is determined for a particular situation by three related ways: Possibilities for action can be tempered by social acceptability or social norms.
 * 1) Beliefs about self.
 * 2) Perceived goals of the behavior.
 * 3) Possibilities for action.

//__Example:__// A student has a good ear and can play an instrument, but may not choose to if it is not the "cool" thing to do according to his/her peers. People tend to seek out tasks that develop their recognized abilities.

Maehr emphasizes importance of "task-goals"- those that involve attempts to master a task because one has become absorbed in the task or because one is trying to demonstrate competence to oneself.

//Results// for teachers: develop students' independent, self-initiated learning skills.

__Factors that influence students' ability to develop self-initiated learning skills:__
 * personal past experiences (past successes and failures)
 * peer expectations
 * the manner in which the task is evaluated can effect motivation
 * external evaluation tends to reduce intrinsic interest.

__Task and Ego-involvement: Critical__ For many learners the development of task involvement is critical in sustaining motivation. This is good news for music teachers, because music has a high degree of appeal.

__Concepts of level of aspiration (Lewin, 1951) and fear of failure (Atkinson, 1965) are closely related to the theory of achievement and motivation.__ If student experiences early success, higher goals are likely to be established, with additional commitment to their completion.
 * Levels of aspiration** - examined by sampling students' goals. Higher degree of personal involvement is generated if students are allowed to construct their own goals.

//Expectation of eventual success may be important factor in achievement motivation - and this will be high as long as the means for reaching a goal are available.//

Lack of success in reaching identified objectives may cause emotional problems in the learner, including anxiety, depression, frustration, and unrealistic expectations. Music teachers may be the most important component in the motivation equation - can assist students in avoiding problems by considering their family and cultural backgrounds when helping them to establish realistic goals.
 * Fear of Failure**

__Good teachers:__
 * Guide their students
 * Indicate present position or starting point & final destination
 * Indicate alternative routes to their goals
 * Provide subgoals along the route to measure how much distance has been traveled - growth.

Self-Motivated Learning Cycles
__Corno and Rohrkemper (1985) "Self-Regulation" Theory__ Self-regulated learning is the highest form of cognitive engagement that students can use to learn. Requires a systematic effort be made by students to: Music teachers can aid students in developing self-regulated learning skills by employing teaching/learning strategies that foster intrinsic motivation:
 * develop an understanding of new material
 * manipulate the network of ideas they already possess related to the content
 * monitor their progress in acquiring the new information
 * use a variety of activities and teaching methods
 * have discussion of content
 * provide for student choice
 * purse topics at depth
 * provide timely, encouraging, informative feedback

__Piaget's self-motivating learning cycle in his "Equilibrium" theory:__ The processes of assimilation, or taking in new information, and accomodating this information to our environment are the engine that motivates learners to seek new knowledge. Interaction (play) with the environment offsets equilibrium - and the individual will always seek to restore equilibrium by accomodating to the environment and assimilating information learned to new situations.

Humanistic Motivation
//Humanistic motivation focuses on personality aspects of the learner rather than the learner's interaction with the learning problem.//

__Abraham Maslow's Concept of Motivation:__ Hierarchy of Needs: for physiological well-being, for safety, for "belongingness" and love, for esteem, for self-actualization. Once the needs at the lower level are gratified the individual becomes concerned with needs at the next higher level. Healthy individuals - those whose lower-level needs have been gratified - can continue to be motivated by self-actualization. Self-Actualization - fulfillment of one's potential or mission or trend toward unity within the individual.

__Carl Roger's position on motivation:__ Developed from a counseling environment Focuses on:
 * the importance of a learner being self-aware, in touch with himself/herself. Nondirective learning.
 * accepting learning environment that is student- centered & sensitive to the students' feelings.
 * actions of teachers that convey acceptance of students
 * environments in which each student can grow into a fully functioning person

Both Maslow and Rogers concur that learners must make their own decisions - both encourage learner centered instruction. Less-directive instruction will be more successful.

All theories agree that motivation is optimized when people:
 * Believe that they are engaging in tasks for their own (internal) reasons rather than external ones
 * view the task as moderately challenging, but still feel capable of succeeding
 * focus on the task itself, rather than focusing on how others will evaluate their performance.

Contextual Factors
__Hunt and Sullivan (1974) two categories of factors that affect learning:__
 * 1) Characteristics of the learner, such as socio-economic class.
 * 2) The setting in which the learning takes place. (Ex. Is the school a positive place to be?, Does the class eagerly await their weekly visit from the music teacher?)

__Kurt Lewin's "Field Theory" provides one theoretical framework in which to view the educational context.__ An individual's psychological context is described as "life space", in which various forces, ether conscious or unconscious, are either attractive or unattractive. "Approach-approach" conflicts occur when two attractive forces compete for life space, the student wants to do both, but must choose. What this means for music teachers: If a music student's life space becomes too negative and full of unattractive alternatives, the young person may leave the field by daydreaming, forgetting their instrument, or dropping out.

__Aspects of the educational environment that can affect the learning process:__ __Hunt and Sullivan (1974)__

1. Cultural Setting: includes national and community elements and values. 2. Current school setting: includes culture of the school, class values, rural-urban-suburban locale. 3. School characteristics (or classroom characteristics): includes size of school; number, age, and sex of students; number, age, and sex of teachers; physical characteristics, for example, open architecture. 4. School organization (or classroom organization): includes power relations, decision-making patterns, division of labor, communicating patterns, relations among staff, relations among students, peer influence, etc. 5. Personal characteristics of teachers: includes teacher characteristics specifically oriented toward the teaching function, such as personality structure, religious attitudes, social attitudes, philosophy of life, etc. 6. Student-oriented teacher attitudes: includes education goals, concepts about the teacher role and the student role, attitudes toward teaching, acceptance or rejection of student, etc. 7. Teacher behavior: includes teaching practices, specific teaching techniques, response to student behaviors, changes in teaching strategies,etc.

Factors that help distinguish effective directors from less effective directors (Abeles, 1975):
 * 1) Planning ability and familiarity with the literature.
 * 2) Ability to execute plans by establishing rapport with the ensemble members and communicating precisely the outcomes desired.
 * 3) Focus on outcomes of the rehearsal in areas other than performance.

//**Conclusion of Motivation and Student Achivement: Knowledge of the interaction of situational and student characteristics is key to designing successful education systems.**//